“Hormones in Reproduction” plus 2 more nursing article(s): NursingCrib.com Updates

Hormones in Reproduction
Pathophysiology of Cell Injury
Cluster C Personality Disorders

Posted: 20 Jan 2011 05:31 PM PST

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone is produced by the hypothalamus. The target organ of GnRH is the anterior pituitary gland (APG). In females, GnRH stimulates the release of stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the APG. The release of FSH and LH initiates puberty and sustains female reproductive cycles. However, the release of the hormone is pulsatile. In males, FSH and LH are released from the APG through the work of GnRH initiating puberty.

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is produced by the anterior pituitary gland (APG). FSH stimulates the ovaries in females and testes in males to produce another hormone. In Females FSH does the following:

Stimulates the final maturation of follicle.
Stimulates growth and maturation of Graafian follicles before ovulation takes place.

In males FSH stimulates the release of testosterone in the Leydig cells of the testes.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

LH is another hormone produced by the Anterior Pituitary Gland that in return stimulates the ovaries in females and testes in males. In males luteinizing hormone stimulates the Leydig cells of the testes to secrete and release testosterone. In females LH does the following:

Stimulates final maturation of follicle.
Causes ovulation by the surging LH levels 14 days before the next menstrual period.
Stimulates the alteration of Graafian follicles to corpus luteum. Corpus luteum continues to secrete estrogen and progesterone for about 12 days if no fertilization occurs. If the ovum is not fertilized, placenta gradually takes over this function.

Estrogen

The hormone estrogen is both produced in male and female body. In the early stages of menstrual cycle estrogen is produced by the ovaries. In the latter part of menstrual cycle, when the Graafian follicle is transformed into corpus luteum, estrogen is produced by the corpus luteum. During pregnancy the placenta is responsible for releasing this hormone. In males, it is formed in small quantities from testosterone in Sertoli cells of testes. Also, other tissues such as the liver, produces estrogen in small quantities in males.

The target organs of estrogen in females are the internal and external reproductive organs and the breast. In males, estrogen plays a vital role for normal sperm formation in the testes. The actions of estrogen in females are:

Development and maturation of the reproductive organs at puberty.
Stimulates the endometrium before ovulation.
Initiates fat deposition at the breasts during puberty.
Induces the growth of ductal and glandular tissues of the breasts.
Stimulates the growth of long bones but causes the closure of epiphyses, thus, restricting mature height.
Promotes uterine and breast tissue growth during pregnancy.
Inhibits active breast milk production during pregnancy.
Relaxes pelvic ligaments during pregnancy.

Pathophysiology of Cell Injury

Posted: 20 Jan 2011 05:30 PM PST

CAUSES OF CELL INJURY

Causes of cell injury are summarized into three components. Injury of the cell occurs as a result of:

A DEFICIENCY of substances that are vital to the cell
A presence of substances that inhibit with cell function. This is noted in cases of POISONING or INTOXICATION
The loss of the cell's structural integrity such as in cases of physical injuries or also termed as TRAUMA.

DEFICIENCY

The life process of a cell is derived from a variety of chemical requirements, need for an energy supply and from its complex metabolism. Deficiency of these factors may contribute to inhibition of cell function hence, causing cell injury. Factors that may produce a deficiency of essential nutrients vital for the cell's life process are the following:

Primary nutrient deficiency

A lack of nutrients necessary for cell's life process is called a primary nutrient deficiency. In cases where an individual is suffering from starvation a lack of dietary energy sources will result to cellular injury. Even in cases where an individual's diet is adequate and even excessive in providing energy sources but when a certain nutrient is lacking cellular injury would still be the result. For instance, a person who lacks thiamine in his diet will result to damage on the nervous tissue as this vitamin is required for the normal carbohydrate metabolism in the tissue.

Secondary Nutrient Deficiency

A secondary nutrient deficiency results from the inability of the body to absorb the substances that are present in the diet. In this case, the person's diet is adequate not only in energy sources but also in vitamins and nutrients. However, there is a problem in the absorption of the substances that will still result to cell injury.

Genetic defects

Injurious cell deficiencies can also arise as a result of genetic defects. The metabolic pathways of the cell contain substances that synthesized based on the encoded information from the genes that are present in the chromosomes. (See section on Anatomy and Physiology of Cells). Once chromosomes are damaged or injured a decline in metabolic intermediate occurs and the cell function is then compromised due to the lack or deficiency of these intermediates. Aside from that genetic control of metabolism is defective or inadequate when genetic defects are present. Thus, the resulting phenomenon is – CELL INJURY.

Infection

Deficiency state leading to cellular injury can also be caused by viral actions. Following infection of a cell by a certain virus, the virus causes the cells to produce new virus particles that are then released from the infected cell. Aside from that, infectious agents utilize the needed nutrients that the cell must use for its processes. Some cells may survive this situation however, a disruption in the cell's metabolism occurs when a heavy demand for key metabolites in the production of new viral particles that results to cellular injury.

Cluster C Personality Disorders

Posted: 20 Jan 2011 05:18 PM PST

Definition

Personality Disorders are characterized by inflexible and maladaptive personality traits that significantly interfere in how a person perform, behave or act within the society.

Categories

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4^th Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) categorizes personality disorders into clusters based on the major or identifying symptom.

CLUSTER A: people with odd and eccentric behavior.

CLUSTER B: people who are dramatic, emotional and erratic.

CLUSTER C: people who appear anxious and fearful.

Cluster C: Personality Disorders

Avoidant Personality Disorder

Avoidant personality disorder is characterized by a persistent pattern of:

Social uneasiness and reticence
Low self-esteem
Hypersensitivity to negative reaction

Clinical Manifestations

Shy
Unusually fearful of rejection, criticism, shame or disapproval
Socially awkward
Easily devastated by real or perceived criticism
Have a very low self-esteem
Believes that they are inferior

Dependent Personality Disorder

People who are noted to excessively need someone to take care of them that lead to their persistent clingy and submissive behavior have a dependent personality disorder. These individuals have fear of being separated from the person whom they cling on to. The behavior elicits caretaking from others.

Clinical Manifestations

Pessimistic
Self-critical
Can be easily be hurt by other people
Frequently reports feeling unhappy or depressed ( due to actual or perceived loss of support from a person)
Preoccupied with unrealistic fears of being alone and left alone to take care for themselves
Has difficulty deciding on their own even how simple the problem is
Constantly seeks advice from others and repeated assurances about all types of decisions
Lacks confidence
Uncomfortable and helpless when alone
Has difficulty initiating or completing simple daily tasks on their own

Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder

Individuals who are preoccupied with perfectionism, mental and interpersonal control and orderliness have an obsessive compulsive personality disorder. Persons with an obsessive compulsive personality are serious and formal and answer questions with precision and much detail. These people often seek treatment because of their recognition that life has no pleasure or because they are experiencing problems at work and in their relationships.

Clinical Manifestations